The Confederacys Defeat in the Civil War Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Confederacys Defeat in the Civil War - Essay Example The Confederacy lost the civil war to the Union, which consisted of the Northern states, and there are many reasons that are considered as being explanatory for this. From the very beginning of the war, the North had a number of advantages over the South, and they basically had large amounts of everything while the South had hardly anything at all. The Union had large amounts of land, and an ever-growing industry, while the South basically had only one main cash crop: cotton. This is one of the most major reasons as to why the Confederacy suffered defeat in the Civil War - they made a serious mistake by believing that its thriving cotton industry would be enough to sustain itself throughout the war, and they soon realized that their assumptions had been far off. The North were much more successful in regards to their decision making and other strategies, and although the Civil War was absolutely a trying time for both the Confederacy and the Union alike, the fact is that the question of the outcome was quite obvious from the start. The South was very ill-equipped and not prepared enough, while the North was prepared to endure the deprivation of war, and not only that, but as well, just to further add on to the dilemma of the South, they were basically sucked dry of any semblance of economic formidability, while for the North the war was actually economically beneficial, as even after only the first year of the war they found that they were experiencing an enormous industrial boom. From this we can conclude several different things in particular, namely the fact that the main reason the Confederacy suffered defeat in the Civil War is because they were not prepared. They did not strategize properly, and they were not at all financially prepared before or during the time of the war. The South had actually originally counted on the North not being able to keep themselves in the war, and assumed that they would eventually give up and thus allow the South to secede, however this did not happen, and this was largely in part due to the resolve of Lincoln. It has been considered as well that the longer the war went on, the more and more the North's odds of winning increased, and eventually the South was doomed. Reconstruction: A Success or a Failure Reconstruction was an attempt that was made during and after the Civil War by the United States in order to attempt to resolve the issues that existed from the war when both the Confederacy and slavery were destroyed. It was truly an era of unprecedented and severe political conflict and of incredible change, and this reconstruction of the United States was carried on by President Johnson after the assassination of President Lincoln, during the years 1865 and 1866. The reconstruction period was - and still is - considered as being a time of great hardship for the United States, and President Andrew Johnson is considered as being one of the most major and key players during this time, as it was he who was faced with the task of having to reunite the North and South together after the drama and severity of the Civil War. Basically the reconstruction was a period when all people needed new and enforced human rights, even African Americans, as up to this point they were a minority group which had no rights and were still considered as being less than full people in a society that proclaimed and

Decision Support Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Decision Support Systems - Essay Example Appraisal of the hotel’s DSS systems The Decision Support System (DSS) is a technology that enables managers in organizations to make effective business choices or solve problems using the available information in the organizations. Almost all information systems help in decision-making. However, the DSS exclusively works with this function. The DSS helps in the analysis of huge amounts of data referred to as business intelligence. Maurier Hotels Group is an SME type of business that should be having enough employees and many departments that should help in making appropriate decisions using the DSS. Considering the current size of the organization, many types of DSS can be more effective since the cost will not exceed the benefits expected after introducing businesses intelligence. The common types of the DSS are the model-driven, communication driven, and the data driven. The data-driven system is usually programmed to use limited set of information such as the number of cus tomers in the current quarter. During the analysis, the CEO or the customer relation manager in the organization will carry out a dialogue with this decision support system by highlighting various scenarios relating to customers. For instance, in order to attract more customers, the managers will use the customer decision support system. ... 22). Model-driven systems help organization in the formulation of alternatives and study their impacts. For instance the hotels can analyze different strategies of creating strong customer relations through this DSS. Many organizations have succeeded in choosing the best alternatives through this system (Koch 2007, P. 220). The hotel group may also use the communication-drive type of DSS. The category of DSS will help the customers care departments in the three hotels to collaborate and share information about their customers. This DSS is more effective for organizations such as the current Maurier Hotels that has to work in groups. The communication-drive intelligence systems will ensure that the hotel groups of the organizations co-ordinate their activities including the customer management services in the three hotel groups. This DSS is most appropriate in-group activities since it ensures easier communication between two groups. By introducing this type of DSS in the organization , the CEO will not have to move from one hotel group to another to collect the information about customers. The information is present on one system. This will help the CEO to monitor the activities taking place in the three hotels at the same time. The technology will help the organization to save the time required to compile information about customers in the three hotel groups. This means that this intelligent system helps in removing distance and time barriers in group businesses (Muntermann 2008, 18). The DSS is also effective because it supports group decisions in an organization. It will be easier for the three groups to make appropriate decisions that will positively affect them (Janakiraman & Sarukesi 2009, p. 43). This type of DSS is helpful because it helps different branches

How do you intend to use the skills and knowledge gained from the Essay

How do you intend to use the skills and knowledge gained from the Public Sector Leadership and Management Institute in your current position - Essay Example The public will thus get the avenue of expressing their concern and ventilating their grievances. Consequently, the local government will improve the quality of service in their jurisdiction. In addition, the implementation of a customer relationship management will ensure that there is attraction, retention, and getting back former customers to the organization. From the knowledge leant, one is able to implement a system which is customer friendly and that reduces resistance to change. Strong resistance forces that require basic knowledge on change management commonly meet the alteration of the status quo (Christensen & Per 25). There is thus need to ensure that the implementation is gradual and that majority if not all of the clients are involved in the process as learnt in change management. From the knowledge acquired, it will be easy to adopt simple procedures that reduce costs and increase response and satisfaction of customers. Moreover, the skills acquired through the training will assist in ensuring that the policies of the local government are strategic and future oriented. The feasibility skills and evaluation possibility will be applied in monitoring progress and detecting deviations so that corrective actions are pursued (Christensen & Per 25). In conclusion, the skills and knowledge obtained is instrumental in the general understanding of management process as well as the need to improve institutional performance. the knowledge and skills has to be applied after carefully evaluating the impact and earning the confidence of stakeholders. The process should be flexible to look at the diverse nature of interests of

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using participant Essay

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using participant observation - Essay Example Moreover, the concept of participant observation also requires maintaining a reasonable distance between the participants and the researchers so that the process of observation is not affected (Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994). Participant observation is a data gathering technique used to understand and examine the thoughts, feelings and views of the participants under their normal routine life (Adler & Adler, 1994; Wiersma, 1995). They are observed in their normal or regular milieu. The method involves the observation of participants’ behavior and requires the participant observer to look closely, listen carefully and ask sensibly (Lofland, 1971). The aim of this paper is to define participant observation in detail by describing the advantages and drawbacks of this method as a researching method. Moreover the paper suggests some possible steps to overcome the weaknesses of this method. Participant observation is widely known as a technique to collect qualitative data. The idea of participant observation is similar to other qualitative techniques which are based on the assumption that there are multiple perceptions about a particular issue in the associated population. Participant observation is always carried out in a community setting. The distinct feature of participant observation is that it does not distract the participants from their normal behavior. Other research techniques include surveys, interviews, questionnaires etc. All these techniques do not ensure the normal and actual attitude of people. People may answer the way the observer wants them or there may be a diplomatic response to the questions in the surveys and interviews. An example can be taken as a slight or considerable change in a person’s natural behavior due to the presence of television camera capturing him. However, the use of Participant observation ensures the correctness of the c ollected data if the observer knows how to tact situations and keep the observations away from

Bollywood Film Essay Example for Free

Bollywood Film Essay The development of technology has caused various changes in the different aspects of the society. One of the most observable modifications is in terms of the source of entertainment for most people. Nowadays, majority of the people are interested in watching movies. They tend to get the satisfaction out of looking at actors and actresses play various roles. Motion pictures also portray different themes that could be focused on romance, actions, horror, science fiction, and others. The clamor for movies also paved the way for the success and popularity of numerous thespians such as those in Bollywood. Bollywood usually make movies that feature the concept of Scopophilia, which literally means the â€Å"love of watching. † This term is also synonymous with voyeurism that pertains to the experience of sexual gratification by means of observing other people in secret. Most of the time, the object of such kind of desire is someone who is undressed or engaged in a sexual activity. The main idea in the concept of scopophilia is that the one who is looking or peeping does not interact with the person being observed. In the same manner that movie-viewing also adheres to such practice because the audience watches the activities of the people on the screen, who are unaware that they are being observed. Most of the time, filmmakers would use erotic scenes in order to satisfy the sense of scopophilia within a person. However, they could get around it by featuring a chaste woman in the plot of the story. In this sense, the filmmakers are actually creating a balance between a woman who easily engages in sexual activity and another female who represents the conservative value of being chaste. This is greatly observable in Shri 420, wherein it shows two women that were linked with the main character Raj, Vidya the virtuous woman and Maya the sultry temptress. The film shows erotic scenes especially those involving Maya. Nevertheless, they were able to get away with it because of the argument that these scenes are important in order to show the difference of Maya from Vidya. As such, erotic scenes were perceived to have an important purpose in the plot of the story to be able to distinguish the kinds of women that exist. This also symbolizes the difference of the good and the bad that is shown in the movie, wherein Raj was with Vidya when he was still living a morally upright life but later on tempted by Maya when he was already engaged in illegal activities. The discussions above show that scopophilia is actually the main idea behind the very nature of movie-watching. Filmmakers usually use erotic scenes in order to satisfy this kind of desire within a person. Nevertheless, erotic scenes also have an important part in the movie as it tends to distinguish the upright life from the unethical one by using women as examples.

Chemical Tests for Biomolecules

Chemical Tests for Biomolecules Kaneshanathan Kumaraguru Contents (jump to) Introduction Objective Materials Methodology Results Discussion Conclusion References Introduction A macromolecule is â€Å"a molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetitions of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass† (Jenkins et al., 1996, p.2289). Carbohydrates are made of monosaccharides, which typically consist 5 or 6 carbon straight saturated chain (Bochkov, Zaikov and Afanasiev, 1991, p.2). Proteins are made up of one or more polypeptides which consist of chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds (Walsh, 2004, p.2). Objective To identify the macromolecules (carbohydrates and proteins) by using various chemical assays. Materials Samples – Glucose, lactose, fructose, starch, sucrose, tyrosin, tryptophan and egg albumin. Reagents – Molish’s reagent, iodine solution, benedict’s solution, barfoed’s reagent, seliwanoff’s reagent, ninhydrin solution and millon’s reagent. Other chemicals – Concentrated H ­2SO4, AgNO3, dilute NaOH, dilute NH4OH, concentrated HNO3, NaNO2/dilute HCl and sulpanilic acid. Equipments – Bunsen burner, pipett, beakers and test tubes. Methodology Tests for carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, lactose, sucrose and starch). Molisch’s test Using a transfer pipette, 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was poured into five test tubes. Then few drops of Molisch’s reagent was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and mixed well. Then 2ml of concentrated H2SO4 was added down the sides of the test tubes. Iodine test Using a transfer pipette, 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was poured into five test tubes. Then 3 drops of diluted I2 was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette. Benadict’s test Using a transfer pipette, 5ml of Benadict’s solution was poured into five test tubes. Then 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was mixed well. Test tubes were then heated in a water bath for 3 minutes. Barfoerd’s test Using a transfer pipette, 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was poured into five test tubes. Then 5ml of Barfoerd’s solution was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was mixed well. Test tubes were then heated in a water bath for 3-4 minutes. Seliwanoff’s test Using a transfer pipette, 5ml of Seliwanoff’s reagent was poured into five test tubes. Then 5-6 drops of each carbohydrate solution was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was mixed. Test tubes were then heated in a water bath for exactly 30 seconds. Tollen’s test Using a transfer pipette, 1ml of AgNO3 was poured into five test tubes. Then using a transfer pipette, dilute NaOH was added until a slight precipitate was formed. Then dilute NH4OH was added until the precipitate just dissolved. 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was then added into each test tube using a transfer pipette. Test tubes were then heated in a water bath for 5 minutes. Tests for amino acids (tyrosine and tryptophan) and protein (egg albumin). Ninhydrin test Using a transfer pipette, 0.5ml of 0.02% amino acid solutions and protein was poured into three test tubes. Then 1ml of Ninhydrin solution was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was heated in a water bath for 3-4 minutes. Xanthoproteic test Using a transfer pipette, 2ml of 0.02% amino acid solutions and protein was poured into three test tubes. Then 2ml of concentrated HNO3 was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was heated in a water bath for 1-2 minutes. Millon’s test Using a transfer pipette, 2ml of 0.02% amino acid solutions and protein was poured into three test tubes. Then 3-4 drops of millon’s reagent was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette and was heated in a water bath for 3-4 minutes. Pauly’s test Using a transfer pipette, 1ml of 0.02% amino acid solutions and protein was poured into three test tubes. Then 1ml of sulphanilic acid was added into each test tube using a transfer pipette. 1ml of dilute HCl was then added into three separate test tubes. All six test tubes were kept in ice bath for 3 minutes. Then the amino acids / protein solutions were mixed with 1ml of dilute HCl in the test tubes and were kept in the ice bath again. Few drops of NaOH were then added to the test tubes in the ice bath. Results For carbohydrates Test Compounds Observation Inference Molisch’s test Starch Presence of purple colour ring The compound is a carbohydrate Glucose Presence of purple colour ring The compound is a carbohydrate Fructose Presence of purple colour ring The compound is a carbohydrate Lactose Presence of purple colour ring The compound is a carbohydrate Sucrose Presence of purple colour ring The compound is a carbohydrate Iodine test Starch Presence of blue-black complex The compound is a polysaccharide Glucose Absence of blue-black complex The compound is not a polysaccharide Fructose Absence of blue-black complex The compound is not a polysaccharide Lactose Absence of blue-black complex The compound is not a polysaccharide Sucrose Absence of blue-black complex The compound is not a polysaccharide Benadict’s test Starch Absence of brick-red colour precipitate The compound is a non- reducing sugar Glucose Presence of brick-red colour precipitate The compound is a reducing sugar Fructose Presence of brick-red colour precipitate The compound is a reducing sugar Lactose Presence of brick-red colour precipitate The compound is a reducing sugar Sucrose Absence of brick-red colour precipitate The compound is a non- reducing sugar Barfoerd’s test Starch Absence of red colour precipitate The compound is not a monosaccharide Glucose Presence of red colour precipitate The compound is a monosaccharide Fructose Presence of red colour precipitate The compound is a monosaccharide Lactose Absence of red colour precipitate The compound is not a monosaccharide Sucrose Absence of red colour precipitate The compound is not a monosaccharide Seliwanoff’s test Starch Absence of red colour complex The compound contains an aldehyde group Glucose Absence of red colour complex The compound contains an aldehyde group Fructose Presence of red colour complex The compound contains a ketone group Lactose Absence of red colour complex The compound contains an aldehyde group Sucrose Presence of red colour complex The compound contains a ketone group Tollen’s test Starch Absence of silver mirror The compound is a non- reducing sugar Glucose Presence of silver mirror The compound is a reducing sugar Fructose Presence of silver mirror The compound is a non- reducing sugar Lactose Presence of silver mirror The compound is a reducing sugar Sucrose Absence of silver mirror The compound is a non- reducing sugar For amino acids and protein Test Compounds Observation Inference Ninhydrin test Egg albumin Absence of purple colour complex The compound is not an amino acid Tryptophan Presence of purple colour complex The compound is an amino acid Tyrosin Presence of purple colour complex The compound is an amino acid Xanthoproteic test Egg albumin Absence of yellow colour complex The compound is a protein Tryptophan Presence of bright yellow colour complex The compound is an amino acid Tyrosin Presence of pale yellow colour complex The compound is an amino acid Millon’s test Egg albumin Absence of pink colour precipitate Tryptophan Absence of pink colour precipitate Presence of tyrosin Tyrosin Presence of pink colour precipitate Pauly’s test Egg albumin Absence of red azo dye Tryptophan Presence of red azo dye Presence of tryptophan/ tyrosin/ histodine Tyrosin Presence of red azo dye Figure 1: Molisch’s test: Figure 2: Iodine test: Figure 3: Iodine test: Presence of purple colour ring Presence of blue-black complex Absence of blue-black complex Figure 4: Benedict’s test: Figure 5: Benedict’s test: Figure 6: Barfoerd’s test: Absence of brick red ppt. Presence of brick red ppt. Absence of red ppt. Figure 7: Barfoerd’s test: Figure 8: Seliwanoff’s test: Figure 9: Tollen’s test   Presence of red ppt. Presence of red colour complex Presence of silver mirror Figure 10: Ninhydrin test: Figure 11: Xanthoproteic test: Figure 12: Millon’s test: Presence of purple colour complex Presence of yellow colour complex Presence of pink colour ppt. Figure 13: Pauly’s test: Presence of red azo dye Discussion The principles of each test: In molisch’s test, concentrated sulfuric acid is used to dehydrate the carbohydrates to form 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, which reacts with the ÃŽ ±Ã¢â‚¬â€œnaphthol to give a purple result (Pavia, 2005, p.446). In iodine test, a blue colour is formed when the iodine is absorbed into the open spaces of amylose molecules in starch (Pavia, 2005. p.451). In benedict’s test, the sugar (reducing sugar) gets oxidized and reduces Cu2+ present in the reagent (Raymond, 2010, p.344). Barfoerd’s test is a test unique for monosaccharide, where cupric hydroxide is reduced in acidic medium to give red colour cuprous oxide (Nigam and Ayyagari, 2008, p.25). In seliwanoff’s test, the ketoses are dehydrated to form furfural derivatives which then condense with resorcinol to give a red colour complex (Nigam and Ayyagari, 2008, p.27). In tollen’s test, silver ammonium salt oxidizes the aldehyde to give glucuronide ammonium salt and metallic silver, which gives the silver mirror effect (Brito-Arias, 2007, p.5). In Ninhydrin test, free ÃŽ ±Ã¢â‚¬â€œamino acid radical reacts with ninhydrin to give a blue-violet complex (Malhotra, 2003, p.23). In xanthoproteic test, benzene ring is nitrated with nitric acid which produces a yellow compound (Sim et al., 2008, p.611). In Millon’s test, hydroxybenzene radical of phenolic amino acids (tyrosine) react with millon’s reagent to form a red colour complex (Nigam and Ayyagari, 2008, p.41). In pauly’s test, sulfanilic acid in the reagent gives a diazonium compound in the presence of nitrous acid and hydrochloric acid, which combines with amines and phenols to form coloured azo-compounds (Nigam and Ayyagari, 2008, p.41). Conclusion Macro molecules presence in the given samples was successfully identified by using the given chemical assays. References Bochkov, A.F., Zaikov, G.E. and Afanasiev, V.A (1991) Carbohydrates. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=BmPTDAnsUb0Cprintsec=frontcoverdq=carbohydrateshl=ensa=Xei=bXlKVavSGImTuAS7jYG4CQsqi=2ved=0CCMQuwUwAQ#v=onepageq=carbohydratesf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Brito-Arias, M. (2007) Synthesis and Characterization of Glycosides. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=X9ZTg47alJkCpg=PA5dq=Tollens+testhl=ensa=Xei=2GhKVY3HOI2QuATD1YF4ved=0CDEQuwUwAw#v=onepageq=Tollens%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Jenkins, A.D, Kratochvil, P., Stepto, R.F.T. and Suter, U.W. (1996) `Glossary of basic terms in polymer science`, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 68(12), pp. 2287–2311, ISSN [Online]. Available at: http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/pac.1996.68.issue-12/pac199668122287/pac199668122287.xml (Accessed: 6 May 2015). Malhotra, V.K. (2003) Practical Biochemistry for Students. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=LHa1G131MuYCpg=PA23dq=Ninhydrin+testhl=ensa=Xei=GGxKVavVMMSSuATEsYDADwved=0CB4QuwUwAA#v=onepageq=Ninhydrin%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Nigam, A. and Ayyagari, A. (2008) Lab Manual in Biochemistry: Immunology and Biotechnology. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=Ws570Ql8krACpg=PA25dq=Barfoed%E2%80%99s+testhl=ensa=Xei=i19KVbD7EJWmuQT5joHADAved=0CCEQuwUwAA#v=onepageq=Barfoed%E2%80%99s%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Nigam and Ayyagari (2008) Lab Manual in Biochemistry: Immunology and Biotechnology. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=Ws570Ql8krACpg=PA27dq=Seliwanoff%E2%80%99s+testhl=ensa=Xei=pWhKVcjcDoyouwSMj4HYCAved=0CB4QuwUwAA#v=onepageq=Seliwanoff%E2%80%99s%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Nigam, A. and Ayyagari, A. (2008) Lab Manual in Biochemistry: Immunology and Biotechnology. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=Ws570Ql8krACpg=PA41dq=Millon%E2%80%99s+testhl=ensa=Xei=ymxKVeXJH9GKuATY6IGwDQved=0CCoQuwUwAg#v=onepageq=Millon%E2%80%99s%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Pavia, D.L. (2005) Introduction to organic laboratory techniques: A small scale approach. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=ega5c11VHvkCpg=PA446dq=Molisch%E2%80%99s+testhl=ensa=Xei=rF5KVa39HtHguQSrvIGwCQved=0CCUQuwUwAQ#v=onepageq=Molisch%E2%80%99s%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Pavia, D.L. (2005) Introduction to organic laboratory techniques: A small scale approach. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=ega5c11VHvkCpg=PA451dq=Iodine+testhl=ensa=Xei=Dl9KVfTcHMuxuAT-roCIDgved=0CB4QuwUwAA#v=onepageq=Iodine%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Raymond, K.W. (2010) General Organic and Biological Chemistry. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=iIltMoHUtJUCpg=RA1-PA344dq=Benedict%E2%80%99s+testhl=ensa=Xei=NF9KVcvTOMmxuASL9YH4Cwved=0CCcQuwUwAQ#v=onepageq=Benedict%E2%80%99s%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Sim, K.S., Chin, F.S., Tso, C.P. and Thong, L.W (2008) `Protein identification in latex gloves for bio-compatibility using maximum minimal variation test`, in Osman, N.A.A., Ibrahim, F., Abas, W.A.B.W., Rahman, H.S.A. and Ting, H.N. (ed.) 4th Kuala Lumpur International Conference on Biomedical Engineering 2008. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=sdG-1hN_4TYCpg=PA611dq=Xanthoproteic+testhl=ensa=Xei=gGxKVY3yA9CbuQSa74CwAwved=0CCMQuwUwAQ#v=onepageq=Xanthoproteic%20testf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). Walsh, G. (2004) Proteins: Biochemistry and Biotechnology. Google Books [Online]. Available at: https://books.google.lk/books?id=EXTEjL2wTnYCprintsec=frontcoverdq=proteinshl=ensa=Xei=M3pKVdGXJIfGuATTgoCQAQved=0CB4QuwUwAA#v=onepageq=proteinsf=false (Accessed: 7 May 2015). 1 | Page Chemical Tests for Biomolecules Chemical Tests for Biomolecules INTRODUCTION Biomolecules are complex organic molecules. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus are the atoms that make up most of the biomolecules. These molecules form the basic structure of a living cell. The compounds such as amino acids, nucleotides and monosaccharide’s serve as the building blocks of complex biomolecules. The important biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, hormones and nucleic acids (Kimball, 2012). Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are substances which containing the elements carbon hydrogen and oxygen and they have the general formula of Cx (H2O) y. Simple carbohydrates or the entire carbohydrate family may also be called saccharides .They are the most abundant biomolecules belonging to class of organic compounds found in living organisms. The major source of metabolic energy for both animals and plants are carbohydrates (Churms, 1982). Carbohydrates link to with proteins forming glycoproteins and with lipids forming glycolipids. Moreover they are present in DNA and RNA, which are essentially polymers. More than 75% of the dry weight of the plant world is carbohydrate in nature mainly cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin (Reed, 2005). Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into following three groups: Monosaccharide’s, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides, and Polysaccharides. Monosaccharide A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide. Monosaccharides are single sugars units and there general formula is (CH20) n. Moreover they are colorless, crystalline solids that are freely soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents. The backbone of monosaccharide is an unbranched carbon chain in which all the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (GyoÃÅ'ˆrgydeaÃÅ' k and PelyvaÃÅ' s, 1998). One of the carbon atoms is double-bonded to an oxygen atom to form a carbonyl group each of the other carbon atoms has a hydroxyl group. If the carbonyl group is at an end of the carbon chain, the monosaccharide is an aldehyde and is called an aldose, furthermore if the carbonyl group is at any other position the monosaccharide is a ketone and is called ketoses. Glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose are some examples of monosaccharide. The building blocks of disaccharides like sucrose an d polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch and hemicelluloses are monosaccharide (Ferrier, 1999). Figure 1.1.1 ring structure of monosaccharide molecules. https://www.google.lk/search Figure 1.1.2 monosaccharide molecule showing the aldehyde and ketone group http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/monosacchrides.html Disaccharides A Disaccharide is two monosaccharide units linked by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycoside linkage. Three most abundant disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. In Maltose ÃŽ ± (1→4) glycosidic linkage joins two glucose units, this occurs mainly as a breakdown product during digestion of starch by enzymes called amylases (Owusu-Apenten, 2005). Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide in nature and it’s mostly found in plants which acts a good transport sugar since it is very soluble and can move in very high concentration. In Sucrose the anomeric carbon atoms of a glucose unit and fructose unit are joined. Moreover lactose the disaccharide of milk consists of galactose joined to glucose by ÃŽ ² (1→4) glycosidic linkage (Denniston, Topping and Caret, 2004). In additionally Sucrose and lactose are heterosaccharides and maltose is homosaccharides as we ll as maltose and lactose are reducing sugars. Sucrose is the only common non reducing sugar. Figure 1.3.1 disaccharides are formed by condensation of two monosaccharide. https://www.google.lk/search?q=disaccharideses_sm=122source Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide joined together by glycosidic bond. They are large, often branched, macromolecules. Their large sizes make them more or less insoluble in water and have no sweet taste (Aspinall, 1982). When all the monosaccharide in a polysaccharide is of the same type, the polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide and when more than one type of monosaccharide is present, they are called heteropolysaccharides. Polysaccharides have a general formula Cn (H2O) n-1 where n can be any number between 200 and 2500. Starch glycogen and cellulose are the examples of polysaccharides (Tombs and Harding, 1998). Figure 1.4.1 ring structure of polysaccharides molecules. https://www.google.lk/search?q=polysaccahrideses_sm=122source=lnmstbm=ischsa Proteins Cells are made of protein. Proteins are the most versatile class of molecules in living organisms. All proteins contain C, H, N, O some S, P, Fe, Zn, Cu. Proteins contains 20 different amino acids which are encoded by the genetic code and which constitute the building blocks of the proteins in all living organisms (Walsh, 2002). Each protein species contains one or several polypeptide chains of defined amino acid sequence. Their functions are catalysis, transport, hormones and structure. Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group carboxylic acid group and a side chain. Simple proteins contain only polypeptide chains Proteins can be soluble (globular proteins) and insoluble (myosin, fibrinogen) (Whitford, 2005). Figure 1.5.1 classification of proteins and there structures. https://www.google.lk/search?q=protein structurerevid=120848340tbm OBJECTIVES To distinguish between monosaccharide’s and disaccharides. To differentiate between different types of amino acids. To identify an unknown sample of carbohydrate and amino acid. MATERIALS Albumin solution Arginine solution Barfoed reagent Beakers Benedict’s solution Bunsen burner Burner stand Concentrated sulphuric acid Concentrated nitric acid Copper sulphate Fructose solution Glucose solution Glysin solution Iodine solution Lactose solution Molisch’s reagent Ninhydrin solution Pipettes Seliwanoff’s reagent Sodium hydroxide Starch Sucrose solution Test tubes Tyrosine solution Unknown solutions Water bath TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES METHODOLOGY Molisch’s Test Five test tubes were taken with 1ml of carbohydrate solutions. Few drops of Molisch’s reagent were added to the testubes following with concen.sulphuric acid down the slide of the test tube. The colour change was observed. Iodine test Three drops of Iodine solution was added to each test tube with 1ml of each of the carbohydrate solutions. The colour change was observed. Benedict’s test 1ml of each carbohydrate solutions was taken in five test tubes.5ml of Benedict’s reagent was added to all three test tubes. All five test tubes were placed in a water bath and heated for two minutes. The colour change was observed. Barfoed test 5ml of Barfoed reagent was added with 1 ml of carbohydrate solutions. Test tubes were placed in water bath and heated for five minutes. The colour change was observed. Seliwanoff test 1ml of each carbohydrate solution was added to the test tubes following with 4ml of Seliwanoff reagent. The test tubes were placed in the water bath and heated to two to three minutes. The colour change was observed. Two unknown samples were taken in a test tubes and labeled A and B. Sample A was added to two test tubes. To the sample A the Iodine reagent was added and the colour change was observed. The Benedict’s reagent was added to the sample A of another test tube and was heated in general flame for two minutes and the colour change was observed. The sample B was added to four test tubes. One drop of Iodine reagent was added to the sample B test tube and colour change was observed following with Benedict’s reagent, Barfoed reagent and the Seliwanoff reagent were added to the remaining test tubes with sample B and was heated in the water bath for three minutes and the colour change was observed. TEST FOR AMINO ACID METHODOLOGY Ninhydrin test 1ml of Ninhydrin solution was added into 0.5 ml of 0.02 % amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath and heated for three to four minutes. The colour change was observed. Xanthoproteic Test 2ml of conc. Nitric acid was added to 2ml of 0.02% amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath for two minutes and the colour change was observed. Millon’s Test Four drops of Millon’s reagent was added into 2ml of 0.02% of amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath for four minutes and the colour change was observed. Biurete Test 3ml of 10% of sodium hydroxide was added drop wise to 1% of copper sulphate. The colour change was observed. Two unknown samples were taken in test tubes and labeled C and D. Sample C was added into two test tubes. To the sample C the Biurete reagent was added and the colour change was observed. The Millon’s reagent was added to the sample C of another test tube and was heated in general flame for two minutes and the colour change was observed. The sample D was also added into two test tubes. Biurete reagent was added to the sample B test tube and colour change was observed. Besides Millon’s reagent were added to the remaining test tube with sample B and was heated in the water bath for three minutes and the colour change was observed. RESULTS Test for carbohydrates Test for amino acids DISCUSSION In Molisch’s test all the carbohydrate solution gave a positive result, so as it’s a general test to confirm the molecule is carbohydrate. Iodine test is performed to separate the polysaccharide from monosaccharide and disaccharide as a result in this test only starch gave a positive result since its unbranched molecule. Glucose has a free aldehyde group and fructose has a free ketone group. Thus they react with Benedicts reagent and reduce it to form a reddish orange colour, which is a positive indication of Benedicts reaction .The copper (II) ions in the Benedicts solution are reduced to Copper (I) ions, which causes the colour change. Complex carbohydrates such as starches do not react positive with the Benedicts test. Buiret solution is a blue liquid that changes to purple when proteins are present and to pink in the presence of short chains of polypeptides. The cause of this colour change is because of the copper atom of the Biuret solution reacts with the peptide bonds. Avoid spilling Ninhydrin solutions on your skin, as the resulting stains are difficult to remove. When handling with Concentrated Sulphuric acid wear safety garments to avoid Sulphuric acid getting on self. Do not over heat the amino solutions in water bath since all the proteins may denature moreover colour change cannot be observed. CONCLUSION The unknown solution A is sucrose and it’s a non reducing sugar since in Iodine and Benedict’s test it showed a negative result where there was no colour change in addition to unknown solution B is glucose which is a reducing sugar because in Iodine and Seliwanoff test it gave a negative result remaining colourless and in Benedict’s and Barfoed test it gave a positive result changing its colour from green precipitate to reddish colour solution concluding solution B is glucose. The unknown solution C is protein since positive result was obtained and the solution turned pink in Biurete and Millon’s reagent along with the solution D is an amino acid because it remained colourless in Millon’s test and turned light blue in Biurete test resulting both in negative. References Aspinall, G. (1982). The Polysaccharides. 1st ed. New York: Academic Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Churms, S. (1982). Carbohydrates. 1st ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Denniston, K., Topping, J. and Caret, R. (2004). General, organic, and biochemistry. 1st ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Ferrier, R. (1999). Carbohydrate chemistry. 1st ed. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). GyoÃÅ'ˆrgydeaÃÅ' k, Z. and PelyvaÃÅ' s, I. (1998). Monosaccharide sugars. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Kimball, L. (2012). Biomolecules. 1st ed. Delhi: Research World. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Owusu-Apenten, R. (2005). Introduction to food chemistry. 1st ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 4th July 2014). Reed, D. (2005). Biomolecular archaeology. 1st ed. Carbondale: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Tombs, M. and Harding, S. (1998). An introduction to polysaccharide biotechnology. 1st ed. London: Taylor Francis. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 4th july2014). Walsh, G. (2002). Proteins. 1st ed. Chichester: J. Wiley. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 6th July 2014). Whitford, D. (2005). Proteins. 1st ed. Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley Sons. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 6th July 2014).

Albert Einstein :: biographies bio

Albert was born in 1879 on March 14 to Hermann and Pauline Einstein. Hermann ran an electrical technology business which was often on the verge of bankruptcy. Hermann's parents were Abraham and Hindel. Albert's parents moved around Europe several times while Albert was still living at home. He was born in Ulm, Germany. Two years Albert became a big brother when his sister Maja (Maria) was born, at this time his family was living at Munich. At the age of nine Albert entered a school in Munich called Luitpold. In school Albert got fairly good grades in his subject while he excelled in mathematics. However, he hated the school because success was based on memorization and obedience rather than how much a child knew. Then when Albert went home he studied mathematics, physics, and philosophy all on his own. Then later his teacher asked him to leave because Albert was causing the other students to loose respect for the teacher. At fifteen Albert took the teacher's advice and left mid term to be with his parents and sister in Italy. He renounced his German citizenship after enrolling in a cantonal school in Aarau, Switzerland. After he graduated from Aarau he entered the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, received his diploma and became a Swiss citizen. However, Albert had a difficult time holding down a full time job; he held many different part time jobs and it wasn't until he was offered a job with the Swiss Patent Office in Bern did he finally receive a regular salary. During one of his part time teaching positions his eye was caught by a young Serbian woman, Meleva Maric. She was the only woman in his physics class; yet Albert would not talk of marriage, even after she bore his daughter and gave it up for adoption. Once Albert was hired full time with the Swiss Patent Office in Bern he had enough money to begin thinking about marriage and he and Meleva were married in 1903. With this new job Albert had the time to write his thoughts down and to. Meleva gave birth to two sons Hans Albert in 1904 and Eduard in 1910. Hans would grow up and become a successful hydraulic engineer, while Eduard grew up being sick most of his life. In 1914 the German government offered Albert a position at the University of Berlin as well as a membership to the Prussian Academy of Sciences.